Pacifism - RationalWiki - Ты Леди!

Содержание

Criticism
Further reading
Great britain
Modern history
Peace movements
References
Пацифизм — информация на портале энциклопедия всемирная история

Criticism

One common argument against pacifism is the possibility of using violence to prevent further acts of violence (and reduce the «net-sum» of violence). This argument hinges on consequentialism: an otherwise morally objectionable action can be justified if it results in a positive outcome.

For example, either violent rebellion, or foreign nations sending in troops to end a dictator’s violent oppression may save millions of lives, even if many thousands died in the war. Those pacifists who base their beliefs on deontological grounds would oppose such violent action.

Others would oppose organized military responses but support individual and small group self-defense against specific attacks if initiated by the dictator’s forces. Pacifists may argue that military action could be justified should it subsequently advance the general cause of peace.

Still more pacifists would argue that a nonviolent reaction may not save lives immediately but would in the long run. The acceptance of violence for any reason makes it easier to use in other situations. Learning and committing to pacifism helps to send a message that violence is, in fact, not the most effective way. It can also help people to think more creatively and find more effective ways to stop violence without more violence.

In light of the common criticism of pacifism as not offering a clear alternative policy, one approach to finding «more effective ways» has been the attempt to develop the idea of «defence by civil resistance», also called «social defence».

There have been some works on this topic, including by Adam Roberts[151] and Gene Sharp.[152] However, no country has adopted this approach as the sole basis of its defence.[153] (For further information and sources see social defence.)

Axis aggression that precipitated World War II has been cited as an argument against pacifism[154]. If these forces had not been challenged and defeated militarily, the argument goes, many more people would have died under their oppressive rule.

Adolf Hitler told the British Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax in 1937 that the British should «shoot Gandhi, and if this doesn’t suffice to reduce them to submission, shoot a dozen leading members of the Congress, and if that doesn’t suffice shoot 200, and so on, as you make it clear that you mean business.»[155]

Adolf Hitler noted in his Second Book: «… Later, the attempt to adapt the living space to increased population turned into unmotivated wars of conquest, which in their very lack of motivation contained the germ of the subsequent reaction.

Pacifism is the answer to it. Pacifism has existed in the world ever since there have been wars whose meaning no longer lay in the conquest of territory for a Folk’s sustenance. Since then it has been war’s eternal companion. It will again disappear as soon as war ceases to be an instrument of booty hungry or power hungry individuals or nations, and as soon as it again becomes the ultimate weapon with which a Folk fights for its daily bread.»[156]

Hermann Göring described, during an interview at the Nuremberg Trials, how denouncing and outlawing pacifism was an important part of the Nazis’ seizure of power: «The people can always be brought to the bidding of the leaders. That is easy.

Some commentators on the most nonviolent forms of pacifism, including Jan Narveson, argue that such pacifism is a self-contradictory doctrine. Narveson claims that everyone has rights and corresponding responsibilities not to violate others’ rights.

Since pacifists give up their ability to protect themselves from violation of their right not to be harmed, then other people thus have no corresponding responsibility, thus creating a paradox of rights. Narveson said that «the prevention of infractions of that right is precisely what one has a right to when one has a right at all.

» Narveson then discusses how rational persuasion is a good but often inadequate method of discouraging an aggressor. He considers that everyone has the right to use any means necessary to prevent deprivation of their civil liberties and force could be necessary.[158]Peter Gelderloos criticizes the idea that nonviolence is the only way to fight for a better world.

According to Gelderloos, pacifism as an ideology serves the interests of the state and is hopelessly caught up psychologically with the control schema of patriarchy and white supremacy.[159]

Great britain

Pacifism and revulsion with war were very popular sentiments in 1920s Britain. Novels and poems on the theme of the futility of war and the slaughter of the youth by old fools were published, including, Death of a Hero by Richard Aldington, Erich Remarque’s translated All Quiet on the Western Front and Beverley Nichols’s expose Cry Havoc.

A debate at the University of Oxford in 1933 on the motion ‘one must fight for King and country’ captured the changed mood when the motion was resoundingly defeated. Dick Sheppard established the Peace Pledge Union in 1934, which totally renounced war and aggression.

The idea of collective security was also popular; instead of outright pacifism, the public generally exhibited a determination to stand up to aggression, but preferably with the use of economic sanctions and multilateral negotiations.[54] Many members of the Peace Pledge Union later joined the Bruderhof[55] during its period of residence in the Cotswolds, where Englishmen and Germans, many of whom were Jewish, lived side by side despite local persecution.[56]

The British Labour Party had a strong pacifist wing in the early 1930s, and between 1931 and 1935 it was led by George Lansbury, a Christian pacifist who later chaired the No More War Movement and was president of the PPU. The 1933 annual conference resolved unanimously to «pledge itself to take no part in war».

Researcher Richard Toye writes that «Labour’s official position, however, although based on the aspiration towards a world socialist commonwealth and the outlawing of war, did not imply a renunciation of force under all circumstances, but rather support for the ill-defined concept of ‘collective security’ under the League of Nations.

At the same time, on the party’s left, Stafford Cripps’s small but vocal Socialist League opposed the official policy, on the non-pacifist ground that the League of Nations was ‘nothing but the tool of the satiated imperialist powers’.»[57]

Lansbury was eventually persuaded to resign as Labour leader by the non-pacifist wing of the party and was replaced by Clement Attlee.[58] As the threat from Nazi Germany increased in the 1930s, the Labour Party abandoned its pacifist position and supported rearmament, largely as the result of the efforts of Ernest Bevin and Hugh Dalton, who by 1937 had also persuaded the party to oppose Neville Chamberlain’s policy of appeasement.[59]

The League of Nations attempted to play its role in ensuring world peace in the 1920s and 1930s. However, with the increasingly revisionist and aggressive behaviour of Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Imperial Japan, it ultimately failed to maintain such a world order.

Economic sanctions were used against states that committed aggression, such as those against Italy when it invaded Abyssinia, but there was no will on the part of the principal League powers, Britain and France, to subordinate their interests to a multilateral process or to disarm at all themselves.

Как быть Леди: Умиротворение – что это такое? Спокойный ум. - Океан знаний

Modern history

Beginning in the 16th century, the Protestant Reformation gave rise to a variety of new Christian sects, including the historic peace churches. Foremost among them were the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers)

, Amish, Mennonites, Hutterites, and Church of the Brethren. The humanist writer Desiderius Erasmus was one of the most outspoken pacifists of the Renaissance, arguing strongly against warfare in his essays The Praise of Folly (1509)

The Quakers were prominent advocates of pacifism, who as early as 1660 had repudiated violence in all forms and adhered to a strictly pacifist interpretation of Christianity. They stated their beliefs in a declaration to King Charles II:

«We utterly deny all outward wars and strife, and fightings with outward weapons, for any end, or under any pretense whatever; this is our testimony to the whole world. The Spirit of Christ … which leads us into all truth, will never move us to fight and war against any man with outward weapons, neither for the kingdom of Christ, nor for the kingdoms of this world.^[29]

Throughout the many 18th century wars in which Great Britain participated, the Quakers maintained a principled commitment not to serve in the army and militia or even to pay the alternative £10 fine.

The English Quaker William Penn, who founded the Province of Pennsylvania, employed an anti-militarist public policy. Unlike residents of many of the colonies, Quakers chose to trade peacefully with the Indians, including for land.

From the 16th to the 18th centuries, a number of thinkers devised plans for an international organisation that would promote peace, and reduce or even eliminate the occurrence of war. These included the French politician Duc de Sully, the philosophers Émeric Crucé and the Abbe de Saint-Pierre, and the English Quakers William Penn and John Bellers.[30][31]

Pacifist ideals emerged from two strands of thought that coalesced at the end of the 18th century. One, rooted in the secular Enlightenment, promoted peace as the rational antidote to the world’s ills, while the other was a part of the evangelical religious revival that had played an important part in the campaign for the abolition of slavery.

Representatives of the former included Jean-Jacques Rousseau, in Extrait du Projet de Paix Perpetuelle de Monsieur l’Abbe Saint-Pierre (1756),[32]Immanuel Kant, in his Thoughts on Perpetual Peace,[33] and Jeremy Bentham who proposed the formation of a peace association in 1789.

Representative of the latter, was William Wilberforce who thought that strict limits should be imposed on British involvement in the French Revolutionary Wars based on Christian ideals of peace and brotherhood. Bohemian Bernard Bolzano taught about the social waste of militarism and the needlessness of war.

During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, pacifism was not entirely frowned upon throughout Europe. It was considered a political stance against costly capitalist-imperialist wars, a notion particularly popular in the British Liberal Party of the twentieth century.[34] However, during the eras of World War One and especially World War Two, public opinion on the ideology split.

Peace movements

During the period of the Napoleonic Wars, although no formal peace movement was established until the end of hostilities, a significant peace movement animated by universalist ideals did emerge, due to the perception of Britain fighting in a reactionary role and the increasingly visible impact of the war on the welfare of the nation in the form of higher taxation levels and high casualty rates.

Sixteen peace petitions to Parliament were signed by members of the public, anti-war and anti-Pitt demonstrations convened and peace literature was widely published and disseminated.[36]

The first peace movements appeared in 1815–16. In the United States the first such movement was the New York Peace Society, founded in 1815 by the theologian David Low Dodge, and the Massachusetts Peace Society.

It became an active organization, holding regular weekly meetings, and producing literature which was spread as far as Gibraltar and Malta, describing the horrors of war and advocating pacificism on Christian grounds.[37] The London Peace Society (also known as the Society for the Promotion of Permanent and Universal Peace) was formed in 1816 to promote permanent and universal peace by the philanthropistWilliam Allen.

The peace movement began to grow in influence by the mid-nineteenth century.[39] The London Peace Society, under the initiative of American consul Elihu Burritt and the reverend Henry Richard, convened the first International Peace Congress in London in 1843.[40] The congress decided on two aims: the ideal of peaceable arbitration in the affairs of nations and the creation of an international institution to achieve that.

Richard became the secretary of the Peace Society in 1850 on a full-time basis, a position which he would keep for the next 40 years, earning himself a reputation as the ‘Apostle of Peace’. He helped secure one of the earliest victories for the peace movement by securing a commitment from the Great Powers in the Treaty of Paris (1856) at the end of the Crimean War, in favour of arbitration.

After experiencing a recession in support due to the resurgence of militarism during the American Civil War and Crimean War, the movement began to spread across Europe and began to infiltrate the new socialist movements. In 1870, Randal Cremer formed the Workman’s Peace Association in London.

Cremer, alongside the French economist Frédéric Passy was also the founding father of the first international organisation for the arbitration of conflicts in 1889, the Inter-Parliamentary Union. The National Peace Council was founded in after the 17th Universal Peace Congress in London (July August 1908).

An important thinker who contributed to pacifist ideology was Russian writer Leo Tolstoy. In one of his latter works, The Kingdom of God is Within You, Tolstoy provides a detailed history, account and defense of pacifism.

Tolstoy’s work inspired a movement named after him advocating pacifism to arise in Russia and elsewhere.[42] The book was a major early influence on Mahatma Gandhi, and the two engaged in regular correspondence while Gandhi was active in South Africa.[43]

Bertha von Suttner, the first woman to be a Nobel Peace Prize laureate, became a leading figure in the peace movement with the publication of her novel, Die Waffen nieder! («Lay Down Your Arms!») in 1889 and founded an Austrian pacifist organization in 1891.

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Пацифизм — информация на портале энциклопедия всемирная история

ПАЦИФИЗМ — идеология, политика и общественное движение, выступающие против войн и любого рода насилия.

Как быть Леди: Библиотека - Институт Психотерапии и Клинической Психологии "ИПиКП"

Термины «Пацифизм» и «пацифист» (сторонник Пацифизм) сформулированы в 1901 году группой участников 10-го Всеобщего конгресса мира в Глазго и предложены президентом Лиги мира и свободы Э. Арно (1864-1921 годы) для обозначения движения борцов за мир. Идеология Пацифизма изложена Арно в трактате «Код мира» (1901 год).

Пацифизм основан на убеждении, что убийство человека человеком, как и в целом насилие в отношениях между людьми, есть нарушение мирового порядка, зло, пусть даже и вынужденное. Исторически это убеждение по преимуществу было связано с религиозным сознанием человека. Принцип отказа от причинения вреда всему живому (ахимса) широко представлен в инд. «практической философии», он получил развитие у адживиков, в буддизме, джайнизме и других. В христианском понимании причина насилия в мире заключается в отпадении человека от Бога, нарушении Его воли и тем самым в разрушении изначального порядка отношений Бога, человека и мира. Объективный характер пребывания мира в искажённом состоянии делает невозможным полное избавление от насилия до момента окончательного воссоединения творения с Богом. Вместе с тем на субъектном уровне преодоление насилия полагается возможным и даже обязательным. Эпоха Ветхого Завета была далека от идеала мирного сосуществования как народов, так и отдельных людей, тем не менее, наряду с принципом ограничения мести «око за око, зуб за зуб» (Левит 24:19-20), была дана заповедь «не убий» (Исход 20:13). Ветхозаветное пророчество о временах, «когда не поднимет народ на народ меча» (Исход 2:4), относится к перспективе за пределами исторического времени. Новый Завет исполнен призыва любви к врагам (Матфей 5:43-48, Лука 6:27-28) и Божия благословения миротворцам (Матфей 5:9). Даже в условиях объективно существующего насилия в обществе, по христианскому учению, не следует воздавать «злом за зло», по возможности быть «в мире со всеми людьми» (Римляне 12:17-18). Последовательный и бескомпромиссный Пацифизм характерен для некоторых еретических движений и христианских направлений: катары, адвентисты седьмого дня, швейцарские братья, моравские братья, гуттерское братство, квакеры, меннониты, духоборцы, молокане, пятидесятники, толстовцы и другие.

Как быть Леди: Ксероз кожи: причины, симптомы и лечение заболевания

Философское осмысление Пацифизма имеет свои истоки в учении древне-греческих натурфилософов о космосе как мировом порядке, гармонии и равновесии. Пифагор учил жить в согласии, творить добро врагам, не убивать невинных животных, не наносить вреда растениям. Состояние мира в Римской империи воспевал Вергилий. В стоической традиции идеи Пацифизма развивали Цицерон, Сенека, Марк Аврелий, в поздней античности — Макробий, Боэций. В средние века на пацифистские теории определяющее влияние оказывало христианство. В эпоху Просвещения разрабатывалась идея «вечного мира» (М. де Бетюн Сюлли, Ш. Сен-Пьер, Ж.Ж. Руссо) — соединение всех европейских государств, включая Россию, в единый союз. Среди мыслителей Нового и Новейшего времени, развивавших идеи Пацифизма, — Эразм Роттердамский, Ф. Пасси, Л.Н. Толстой, Б. фон Зутнер, Махатма Ганди, М.Л. Кинг. Особой популярностью идеи Пацифизма пользовались после 1-й мировой войны, 1920-е годы известны как «эра пацифизма» (создание Лиги Наций, Келлога — Бриана пакт 1928 года, движение за всеобщее разоружение и тому подобное). Государственные и политические деятели (А. Бриан, П. Пенлеве во Франции, Р. Сесил, О.Чемберлен в Великобритании, Ф.Келлог, У. Бора в США и другие) активно использовали пацифистскую риторику для оправдания своих действий на международной арене (диктовались прежде всего интересами их собственных государств). В западно- европейских странах 1920-1930-х годов апелляция к пацифистским настроениям населения была важным фактором и при проведении внутренней политики, для успеха на выборах в представительные органы власти.

В России в конце XIX — начала XX веков теоретическую базу Пацифизма разрабатывали юристы и социологи М.А. Энгельгардт («Вечный мир и разоружение», 1899 год), Ф.Ф. Мартенс («Современное международное право цивилизованных народов», тома 1-2, 1882-1883 годы), Л.А. Камаровский («Главные моменты идеи мира в истории», 1895 год), М.А. Таубе («Принципы мира и права в международных столкновениях средних веков», 1899 год), князь В.В. Тенишев («Вечный мир и международный третейский суд», 1909 год) и другие. Российский Пацифизм получил государственную поддержку в форме инициированной Россией Международной конференции по вопросу ограничения вооружений и учреждения международного арбитража (1899 год). В развитие этой инициативы на Гаагских конференциях мира 1899 и 1907 годов были приняты международные конвенции о законах и обычаях войны, ставшие неотъемлемой частью норм международного гуманитарного права. В начале XX века Пацифизм принял в России форму антивоенного движения, он имел общественную поддержку прежде всего в интеллигентских кругах. Созданы Санкт-Петербургское и Московское общества мира, Киевское общество друзей мира (все в 1909 году) и другие. Впервые делегация пацифистов из России приняла официальное участие в 18-м Всеобщем конгрессе мира в Стокгольме (1910 год), глава российской делегации Павел Д. Долгоруков был избран вице-президентом конгресса. В последующий исторический период до 1990-х годов российский Пацифизм как движение не имел достаточных политических условий для независимого развития, уступил место движению сторонников мира, направлявшемуся партийной и госсударственной властью.

В современном мире понятие «Пацифизм» используется для обозначения мировоззренческой и нравственной позиции, идеологии общественного движения. В качестве мировоззренческой позиции Пацифизм может не ограничиваться антивоенной установкой, но представлять различные доктрины ненасилия, пассивного сопротивления, морального совершенствования, нравственной чистоты. В качестве нравственной позиции Пацифизм означает индивидуальный отказ от насилия и соучастия в нём, в частности отказ от службы в армии и от того, чтобы брать в руки оружие. В роли идеологии Пацифизм обосновывает необходимость и возможность установления всеобщего мира, используя взаимосвязанные принципы: абсолютной недопустимости войны, абсолютного запрета насилия или применения силы и абсолютной неприемлемости убийства. Как общественное движение Пацифизм предполагает широкую пропаганду миротворческих идей и ценностей, проведение манифестаций в защиту мира, осуждение гонки вооружений, призыв к снижению военной активности государств, ратование за мирное урегулирование международных и внутригосударственных конфликтов, осуждение терроризма международного. К совркмкнным пацифистским организациям относятся: Международное бюро мира (основано в 1891-1892 годы), Всемирный совет мира (1949-1950 годы), Пагуошское движение, Международная кризисная группа (основана в 1995 году) и другие. Они тесно взаимодействуют с международными и межправительственными организациями [ООН, ЮНЕСКО, ЮНКТАД (Конференция ООН по торговле и развитию), Движение неприсоединения и другие].